HR Compliance 

A Guide to Statutory Compliance in HR & Payroll.  Statutory compliance in HR refers to the legal framework which organizations must abide by with respect to the treatment of their employees. Most of your company's time and money goes into ensuring compliance to these laws.

What is the role of HR compliance?

The HR function is at the center of most employers' efforts to identify, hire and retain the people the organization. It needs to execute its strategy and achieve its goals. But the human resource function is a key player within the organization's compliance structure as well

Why is HR compliance important?

The Human Resources Chief must hire and retain individuals that are knowledgeable about HR specific laws and are able to create appropriate policies and procedures. ... Outside of these core responsibilities, the Human Resources Chief plays an important role in working with the compliance, legal and auditing offices.

What is the statutory compliance in HR?

Statutory compliance, in HR, refers to the legal framework within which organizations must operate, in the treatment of their employees. Every country has several hundreds of federal and state labour laws that companies need to align with

What does an HR compliance manager do?

A compliance manager is a professional that keeps the legal and ethical integrity of a company intact through policy enforcement and program planning. He or she makes sure all departments of a business are complying with the rules and regulations the company upholds.

What does compliance mean in HR?

Human resources compliance is a necessity for any business in today's legal environment. Between the Fair Labor Standards Act (FLSA), OSHA, sexual harassment, and antidiscrimination laws, a business that isn't aware of its HR responsibilities is headed for trouble. When done correctly, HR compliance is a process.

What is the meaning of compliance in HR?

HR Compliance. A business that isn't aware of its HR responsibilities is, clearly, headed for trouble. HR compliance is a process; and there are several rules, laws and acts to consider, such as the Fair Labor Standards Act (FLSA), OSHA, sexual harassment, antidiscrimination laws, and more.

What is human resources compliance?

The human resources (HR) function is at the center of most employers' efforts to identify, hire and retain the people the organization needs to execute its strategy and achieve its goals. But the HR function is a key player within the organization's compliance structure as well

What is compliance audit?

A compliance audit is a comprehensive review of an organization's adherence to regulatory guidelines. Independent accounting, security or IT consultants evaluate the strength and thoroughness of compliance preparations.

What is statutory compliance example?

Statutory means "of or related to statutes," or what we normally call laws or regulations. Compliance just means to comply with or adhere to. So statutory compliance means you are following the laws on a given issue. The term is most often used with organizations, who must follow lots of regulations.

Here are five basic principles organizations should follow to help achieve these goals:

1. Hiring the Right Talent – Hiring the right talent within the HR function’s area of responsibilities (compensation, employee benefits, legal requirements, talent management) is one of the most important issues for organizations today.  The HR function must have the knowledge, skills and experience, or be able to access it through third-party relationships.
2. Proper Education and Training – The talent in the HR function must be well versed in employment law and the regulatory/legal requirements that can affect an organization at anytime.  These laws and requirements are changing all the time and its imperative for the HR function to stay apprised of the latest information available.
3. Create an Employee Handbook and Update it Regularly – An organization’s Employee Handbook is one of its most important documents.  The Employee Handbook is a communications tool that should clearly articulate the organization’s policies and procedures and how business should be conducted.  It is a best practice to have legal counsel review the handbook and any new policies and procedures before distribution.
4. Conducting Scheduled HR Compliance Audits – Many HR functions are typically understaffed and overworked.  As noted, non-compliance can be the basis for financial and reputational risks for organizations.  Conducting scheduled HR compliance audits should be a part of an organization’s overall strategy to avoid any legal liabilities.
5. Communicate, Communicate and Communicate – The HR function is a critical component of an organization.  Whether there are compliance issues or not, it is critical for the HR function leaders (CHRO, VP of HR, etc) to keep other executives up to speed on potential HR compliance risks and recommended remediation.

These steps will help the HR function take a large step to achieving its goal of maintaining HR compliance for the overall organization.

The Worlds Most Outlandish Creatures

 Check out these outlandish creatures from around the world! Mother nature has really indulged in her creative side with them! Includes incredible creatures like the Olm, Assassin spider, blobfish, satanic gecko and others!

 

Blanket Octopus

 The Blanket Octopus is a truly remarkable sight. This unique octopus is able to open its tentacles to reveal a thin colorful membrane which spreads out like a ‘blanket’, this  is done to make the Blanket Octopus look bigger and ward away predators

Blobfish

The Blobfish doesn’t really do much… content to float in place and wait for food to stumble upon it, the Blobfish is a true opportunist. This type of lifestyle works well for the Blobfish as it means the Blobfish is able to survive on small amounts of food due to the lack of exertion in its life.
 

Hemeroplanes Caterpillar

I know the picture looks like a snake but i assure you this is 100% a caterpillar. Infact that is the entire point of the Hemeroplanes Caterpillar, this master of camouflage has a very uniwue defense mechanism in that it can do a very good impression of a pit viper. If the Hemeroplanes Caterpillar feels threatened it will raise the top half of its body from the surface and inflate to resemble a pit viper – this crafty caterpillar even emulates a lunging motion giving the impression its about to strike!

 Assassin Spider

Is it a spider? Or is it a giraffe? Look at its neck! The Assassin Spider (above) is indeed a truly bizarre specimen. The Assassin Spider sports a long neck which is needed to provide leverage due to its massive jaws which is uses to expertly catch and assassinate its prey.

 Hairy Crab

Wouldn’t it be great if you could detoxify the air around you, removing pollution and poisons? That’s exactly what the ‘hairs’ that this crab is named for do. The ‘hair’ which is actually setae acts as i filter and removes damaging poisons and chemicals from the water surrounding the Hairy Crab. This ability is especially important to the blind Hairy Crab as it is known to make its home in some of the most inhospitable environments.

 Hatchetfish

This small fish spends its entire life in the darkest parts of the worlds oceans hidden from prying eyes. The Hatchetfish may not seem spectacular at first sight however the Hatchetfish is actually a light source in the deep, dark oceans it calls home. The Hatchetfish has organs in its sides called photophores which can be ‘turned on’ to give out a glow similar to that of an led light. The Hatchetfish uses this ability to attract unsuspecting prey and will do the opposite to evade predators.

 Leafy Sea Dragon

The Leafy Sea Dragon is a master of camouflage and spends its days drifting through the water perfectly emulating a floating piece of seaweed. The Leafy Sea Dragon gos to great lengths to stay camouflaged such as traveling extremely slow as to not give itself away. Like its closest relatives the sea horses, the male Leafy Sea Dragon carries fertilized eggs until they are ready to hatch.

 Olm

The Olm is a fascinating example of an amphibian that makes its home in the waters of Europe. This bizarre creature can only be found in the deepest, darkest waters and relies on none of the traditional senses we humans are used to such as sight or hearing.

 Satanic Leaf-tailed Gecko

So far we’ve had numerous masters of camouflage in this list but the Satanic Leaf-tailed Gecko really deserves the number one spot! Could there ever be a more accurate representation of a crusty dead leaf? I don’t think so!

11 Recently Extinct Animals Photographs

 Here is a list of 11 extinct animals that were photographed while still alive. Includes the Tasmanian Tigers, Quagga, Passenger Pigeon, Golden Toad, Caribbean Monk Seal, Pyrenean Ibex, Bubal Hartebeest, Javan Tiger, Tecopa Pupfish, Syrian Wild Ass& the Baiji River Dolphin. The current rate of extinction is 100 to 1000 times higher than the average, or background rate, making our current period the 6th major mass extinction in the planet’s history!

 

Tasmanian Tiger

 

The last Tasmanian Tiger, or Thylacine, known to have existed died in the Hobart Zoo, in Tasmania, Australia, on September 7th, 1936. Despite being the last of its kind, the animal (named “Benjamin”) likely died due to neglect after being locked out of its sheltered quarters during extreme weather.

Although commonly referred to as ‘tigers’, and despite having the look of a canid, the Thylacine isn’t remotely related to cats or dogs. Rather, it was the largest carnivorous marsupial of modern times, meaning it carried its young in a pouch. Its closest living relative is the Tasmanian Devil.

The biggest cause of their extinction in the wild was a massive hunting campaign instituted by the Tasmanian government from 1888 to 1909, justified because the Thylacines were believed to be a threat to sheep and hens. The last known wild Tasmanian Tiger was killed by a farmer named Wilf Batty in 1930, after spotting the animal around his hen house.

Quagga

The Quagga was a unique variety of Plains Zebra, marked by having stripes only on the front of its body, with hair color transitioning toward a light brown or tan along its rear and underbelly, until becoming white along its legs. This picture represents the only Quagga ever to have been photographed alive, taken at the London Zoo in 1870.

Its unique hide made the Quagga a target for hunters and poachers, and the last known wild Quagga was probably killed in the late 1870’s. The species went extinct on August 12th, 1883, when the last specimen died at a zoo in Amsterdam, The Netherlands.
Passenger Pigeon

Passenger Pigeon

The story of the Passenger Pigeon is one of the most tragic extinction stories in modern times. As recently as around 200 years ago they weren’t anywhere near extinction. In fact, they were actually the most common bird in North America, and some reports counted single flocks numbering in the billions.

Colonial hunters happened. The pigeon meat was commercialized and recognized as cheap food, especially for slaves and the poor, which led to a catastrophic hunting campaign on a massive scale. Furthermore, due to the large size of their flocks, the birds were seen as a threat to farmers. In fact, in 1703 the Catholic bishop of Quebec actually excommunicated the entire species.

Golden Toad

The first recorded account of the Golden Toad was by herpetologist Jay Savage in 1966, and the last sighting of the species was made in 1989. The toad, showcased by its brilliant golden orange colorization, was native to the tropical cloud forests which surround Monteverde, Costa Rica.

Their extinction symbolizes a large scale decline in amphibian numbers worldwide over the last several decades, which has likely been caused by global warming and climate change. In fact, famed Australian biologist Tim Flannery has described the extinction of the Golden Toad to be the first demise of a species due primarily to global warming.

 Caribbean Monk Seal

 

The Caribbean Monk Seal was the only known seal which was native to the Caribbean Sea and the Gulf of Mexico. It is also the only species of seal to go extinct directly due to human causes. It was officially declared extinct just last year, on June 6th, 2008, although the last recorded account of the species was made at Serranilla Bank between Honduras and Jamaica in 1952.

Their eventual demise, brought on by human hunting, was symbolized during Columbus’ 1494 voyage, when the tiny seals were described as “sea wolves” and 8 were recorded to have been killed and slaughtered for their meat.

Pyrenean Ibex

The Pyrenean Ibex has one of the more interesting stories among extinct animals, since it was the first species to ever be brought back into existence via cloning, only to go extinct again just seven minutes after being born due to lung failure. Here at Ecoworldly, we reported on the event, which happened in January 2009.

The last naturally born Pyrenean Ibex died on January 6th, 2000, after being found dead under a fallen tree at the age of 13. That animal’s only companion had died just a year earlier due to old age. Although the recent effort to resurrect the Ibex was short-lived, the event does bring optimism, and raise serious debate, about whether extinct creatures should be given a second chance.

Bubal Hartebeest

 

The Bubal Hartebeest was a magnificent, tough beast which was once domesticated by the ancient Egyptians as a food source and for sacrificial purposes. The creature was even mentioned in the Old Testament.

Although it once roamed throughout Northern Africa and the Middle East, the deep-rooted mythology which surrounded the animal was not enough to save it from European hunters who began hunting them for recreation and meat. The last Bubal Hartebeest was probably a female which died in the Paris Zoo in 1923.

Javan Tiger

 

Javan Tigers are a subspecies of tiger which were limited to the Indonesian island of Java. The last specimen to have been seen was sighted in 1972, although there is evidence from track counts that the animal had lingered into the 1980’s. The last track counts to yield evidence of the tigers was held in 1979, when just three tigers were identified.

The leading cause of their extinction was agricultural encroachment and habitat loss, which continues to be a serious concern in Java.

There are some who believe that Javan Tigers could still be alive in some of the island’s few remaining forested regions, although even so, the tiger’s numbers would be so low that the species would still be functionally extinct. The region most likely to contain a tiger today would have to be the Meru Betiri National Park, although even that area is now being threatened by mining companies after the discovery of gold nearby.

Tecopa Pupfish

The Tecopa Pupfish has the unfortunate distinction of being the first species to be declared extinct under the Endangered Species Act of 1973. The official de-listing of the animal came in 1981.

The fish were first discovered in the Tecopa Hot Springs in California in 1942, and their decline followed shortly thereafter, as the Hot Springs were canalized and replaced with bathhouses. The final nail in the coffin came when hotels and trailer parks were built nearby to allow for more comfortable recreation for tourists.

 Syrian Wild Ass

The Syrian Wild Ass was likely extinct when the last known captive animal died at the Schönbrunn Zoo in Vienna, Austria, in 1928. It once had a wide range throughout Mesopotamia, where reports were common of large herds which used to roam wildly in the mountains and desert steppes of the Middle East.

Although already threatened beforehand, it is said that the Syrian Wild Ass completely collapsed during World War I, when their habitat was overrun with heavily armed Turkish and British troops. One account remarked that ”it could not resist the power of the modern guns in the hands of the Anazeh and Shammar nomads, and its speed, great as it may have been, was not sufficient always to escape from the velocity of the modern motor car which more and more is replacing the Old Testament Camel-Caravan.”

Baiji River Dolphin

The inevitable appears to have arrived for the Baiji River Dolphin, a peaceful, majestic dolphin which had inhabited China’s Yangtze River for at least the last 20 million years. The dolphin was declared functionally extinct after an expedition late in 2006 failed to record a single individual after an extensive search of the animal’s entire range.

Urinalysis Interpretation

The Urinalysis

• About the Urinalysis
• Urinary Dip Stick Test
• Tips on Collecting a Urine Sample
• Urine Volume
• Urine pH
• Urine Specific Gravity
• Urine Glucose
• Urine Blood
• Urine Bilirubin
• Urine Nitrates
• Urine Leukocytes
• Urine Sediment from Centrifugation
• Urinary Crystals
• Urinary Casts
• Urinary Artifacts

The Urinalysis: The urinalysis measures the presence and amount of a number of chemicals in the urine, which reflect much about the health of the kidneys, along with cells that may be present in the urine.  We try to identify crystals, bacteria, yeast, red cells, white cells (indicating infection), something called a cast (which is a clump of sloughed cells from inside the tiny renal filtration tubules), sperm and even the occasional parasite. This lets us know if we are dealing with infection, diet or metabolism disorders, and what part of the urinary system is in trouble. Also, veterinarians—or in human medicine—the lab, looks for crystals, bacteria, and other organisms in the urinary sediment. Each of these elements give hints as to function of the kidneys, kidney tubules, ureters (small tubes that connect the kidneys with the urinary bladder), and the urinary bladder.

The first part of a urinalysis is direct visual observation. Normal, fresh urine is pale to dark yellow or amber in color and clear. Normal urine volume is 750 to 2000 ml/24hr.

Turbidity or cloudiness may be caused by excessive cellular material or protein in the urine or may develop from crystallization or precipitation of salts upon standing at room temperature or in the refrigerator which is usually of no significance. Clearing of the specimen after addition of a small amount of acid indicates that precipitation of salts is the probable cause of turbidity.

Urine is normally transparent in most animals, except for the horse.  The horse has a thick viscous urine that is cloudy on examination.  In small animals, turbidity suggests the presence of cells, casts, or crystals.

A red or red-brown (abnormal) color could be from a food dye, eating fresh beets, a drug, or the presence of either hemoglobin or myoglobin. If the sample contained many red blood cells, it would be cloudy as well as red.

Urine Odor:    Urine has a characteristic smell that varies slightly by species and concentration of the sample.  A particularly foul odor may occur in the presence of bacteria. Thus, strong smelling urine is common in cases of cystitis.  Ketonuria (ketones are produced when tissues are breaking down like in the process of starvation) produces a very sweet smell as does Glucosuria (sugar in the urine from diabetes).  Sweet smelling urine is commonly associated with acetonemia (acetones in the urine), pregnancy toxemia, and diabetes mellitus.

Urinary Dip Stick Test:

The Urine Dipstick Test

Urine tests are typically evaluated with a reagent strip that is briefly dipped into the urine sample. The technician reads the colors of each test and compares them with a reference chart.

• Glucose (Tests for diabetes)
• Bilirubins (Tests for liver disease and biliary obstruction)
• Ketones (Tests for fat breakdown products, insulin deficiency, starvation)
• Specific gravity (To see if the kidney is concentrating the urine)
• Blood (Infection or irritation-or mensus/heat cycles)
• pH (Tells us what kinds of stones may be present if this is abnormal—additional test gives more information)
• Protein (Tests for integrity of the filtering system-kidney filtration and tubules)
• Urobininogen (Increased values mean liver damage, excessive RBC breakdown, internal bleeding, poisoning) 
• Nitrites (A test for some bacterial infections)
• Leukocytes (White blood cells indicating infection or cancer)

The urine is then spun down and the sediment checked for cells, yeast, bacteria, crystals, and casts (groups of dead cells that indicate kidney tubule damage). We’ll talk about those below. 

Here are some tips on collecting the urine sample for the urinalysis: 

If you are doing a free-catch sample for urinalysis, it is nice to have some urine caught in the beginning, middle and end of the urination process. Why? The first fraction coming out flushes cells, yeast and bacteria from the vulva or prepuce areas and the urethra (the tube that connects the bladder to the outside world). The middle fraction is a better picture of what has been stored in the bladder. The tail-end of the sample gives a better idea of how the kidneys look.

My personal choice as a veterinarian is to stick a long needle directly into the bladder so I don’t have to guess if the bacteria, yeast and dead cells are from the urethra or the bladder. It doesn’t hurt much and helps alleviate contamination of the sample. That way I can treat the core cause instead of a secondary infection of some type. Medical doctors sometimes insert a catheter into the bladder for this reason.

If you are trying to get a sample from your pet at home, one easy way to do it is to tape a small cup to the bottom of the ruler. As the pet urinates, you can slip the cup underneath them without leaning over and startling them. Label the sample with the date and time it was collected then get the sample to your vet right away for testing. 

Urine Volume:  

Urinalysis Increased Urine Volume (Polyuria): Rule out acute renal disease, chronic renal disease, diabetes mellitus hepatic failure, hyperadrenoorticism, hypercalcemia, hyperparathyroidism (cats and humans), nephrogenic diabetes insipidus, pituitary diabetes insipidus, post obstructive diuresis, primary renal glyosuria, psychogenic polydipsia, pyelonephritis, and pyometra. 

Urinalysis Decreased Urine Volume (Oliguria): Rule out acute renal failure, dehydration, shock, terminal chronic renal disease, and urinary tract obstruction.  

Urinalysis pH: pH is a measure of hydrogen ion concentration (acidity or alkalinity) of the urine. Fresh samples are necessary for an accurate reading because urine becomes alkaline when it is older because the carbon dioxide escapes and the bacteria in the urine convert urea to ammonia which is very alkaline. The healthy, normal pH of human urine is less than 7. The glomerular filtrate of blood plasma is usually acidified by renal tubules and collecting ducts from a pH of 7.4 to about 6 in the final urine. However, depending on the acid-base status, urinary pH may range from as low as 4.5 to as high as 8.0. The change to the acid side of 7.4 is accomplished in the distal convoluted tubule and the collecting duct.

Urinalysis interpretation of crystals in the sediment:

For the crystals formed in acid, neutral or alkaline pH, see my handout:

http://naturalhealthtechniques.com/SpecificDiseases/bladder_kidney_stones.htm   

Urinary pH Too High (Alkaline): Rule out diets high in vegetables and urinary tract infections (the bacteria convert the urine to ammonia). Note: This is the only instance where I tell people to eat lots of protein and junk food for 2-3 days! 

Urinary pH Too Low (Acid): Rule out diets high in protein and refined carbohydrates, anorexia, and starvation.

Urinalysis Specific Gravity (SG): This measures how dilute your urine is. Specific gravity takes into account the weight of the urine and particle size. Water would have a specific gravity of 1.000 Specific gravity between 1.002 and 1.035 on a random sample should be considered normal if kidney function is normal. Most human urine is around 1.010, but it can vary greatly depending on when you drank fluids last, or if you are dehydrated.

If the specific gravity is not > 1.022 after a 12 hour period without food or water, renal concentrating ability is impaired and the patient either has generalized renal impairment or nephrogenic diabetes insipidus. In end-stage renal disease, specific gravity tends to become 1.007 to 1.010.

Any urine having a specific gravity over 1.035 is either contaminated, contains very high levels of glucose, or the patient may have recently received high density radiopaque dyes intravenously for radiographic studies or low molecular weight dextran solutions.

Urine Refractometer

Most laboratories measure specific gravity with a refractometer (see above picture).

Glucose in the Urinalysis: Normally there is no glucose in urine. 

Detectable Glucose (Glucosuria): Rule out diabetes mellitus, kidney disease (decreased tubular reabsorption), acromegaly, hyperpituitarism, bovine milk fever, bovine neurologic disease, excessive insulin dosage, fear or exertional catecholamine release, Fanconi-like syndrome (which can be caused by taking expired tetracycline), moribund animals, sheep endotoxemia, and drugs such as ACTH, glucocorticoids, fluids, Ketamine, morphine, phenothiazine, and xylazine. A small number of people have glucose in their urine with normal blood glucose levels, however any glucose in the urine would raise the possibility of diabetes or glucose intolerance.

Dipsticks employing the glucose oxidase reaction for screening are specific for glucose but can miss other reducing sugars such as galactose and fructose. For this reason, most newborn and infant urines are routinely screened for reducing sugars by methods other than glucose oxidase (such as the Clinitest, a modified Benedict’s copper reduction test). I don’t remember learning about these tests when I took clinical pathology in veterinary school. 

Protein (Proteinuria): When you urinate and see foam in the toilet bowl, this can indicate either sugar or protein and is not normal. A urinalysis and bloodwork are used to determine what the problem is. Talk with your doctor if you see this. Normally there is no protein detectable on a urinalysis strip. 

Detectable Protein in the Urinalysis test: Rule out kidney damage, increased glomerular permeability (from fever, cardiac disease, central nervous system disease, shock, muscular exertion), blood in the urine, inflammation, cancers, infection. High concentrations of very small proteins can also show up in the urine such as Bence Jones protein (a sign of cancer), hemoglobin monomers, and myoglobin. Up to 10% of children can have protein in their urine. Sometimes this is due to colostral antibodies.

Certain diseases require the use of a special, more sensitive (and more expensive) test for protein called a microalbumin test. A microalbumin test is very useful in screening for early damage to the kidneys from diabetes. 

False Positive causes: Rule out urine too alkaline.

Blood in the Urine (Hematuria): Normally there is no blood in the urine. 

Detectable Blood in the Urine: Rule out infection, kidney stones, trauma, and bleeding from bladder or kidney tumors. The technician may indicate whether the blood is hemolyzed (dissolved blood) or non-hemolyzed (intact red blood cells). 

False Positive causes: Rarely, muscle injury can cause myoglobin to appear in the urine which also causes the reagent pad to falsely indicate blood. 

Bilirubin in the Urine (Bilirubinuria): Normally there is no bilirubin or urobilinogen in the urine in a normal urinalysis. These are pigments that are cleared by the liver. 

Detectable Bilirubin: Rule out liver or gallbladder disease, obstruction of bile flow, intravascular hemolysis, hemoglobinuria, and tubular cell conjugation of free bilirubin. 

False positives: Urine color may interfere with the reading of this test. 

Nitrates in the Urine: Normally negative, the presence of nitrates usually indicates a urinary tract infection caused from nitrate reducing bacteria including Veillonellae, Haemophilus, Staphylococci, Corynebacteria, Lactobacilli, Flavobacteria and Fusobacteria. Gram negative rods such as E. coli are more likely to give a positive test. 

Leukocytes in the Urine (Leukocyte esterase): Normally negative. Leukocytes are the white blood cells (or pus cells). If you see these, you have to rule out infection of some kind. 

Urine Leucocytes

Sediment in the Urinalysis: Here the doctor, nurse, or lab technician looks under a microscope at a portion of your urine that has been spun in a centrifuge.  A sample of well-mixed urine (usually 10-15 ml) is centrifuged in a test tube at relatively low speed (about 2-3,000 rpm) for 5-10 minutes until a moderately cohesive button is produced at the bottom of the tube. The supernate is decanted and a volume of 0.2 to 0.5 ml is left inside the tube. The sediment is resuspended in the remaining supernate by flicking the bottom of the tube several times. A drop of re-suspended sediment is poured onto a glass slide and cover-slipped.

The sediment is first examined under low power to identify most crystals, casts, squamous cells, and other large objects. The numbers of casts seen are usually reported as number of each type found per low power field.

Next, examination is carried out at high power to identify crystals, cells, and bacteria. The various types of cells are usually described as the number of each type found per average high power field (HPF). Example: 1-5 WBC/HPF.

Items such as mucous, Mucus is a frequent finding of the urinary sediment. The exact function of mucus is unknown. Some think that this substance is a protection against bacterial infection. This action is done by coating the bacterial pili (hair like things covering some bacteria which make them sticky), essential to colonization of the lower urinary tract wall. The mucus coated bacteria are eliminated through micturition (urinating). Mucus can also protect the lower urinary tract against irritating chemical agents.

Urine Mucous

Mucus forming cells are found scattered all over the urinary tract from the ascending section of the Loop of Henle in the kidney tubules (the filtering system of the kidney) to the bladder. Consequently, mucus can originate from the kidney or from the lower urinary tract. Mucus originating from the kidney is made of Tamm-Horsfall protein. This explains the frequent association of mucus threads and casts. In elderly patients, mucus is a frequent finding and seems to originate from the lower urinary tract.

In the majority of cases, presence of mucus threads is nothing to worry about however, an irritating factor could stimulate mucus secretion.

Blood in the urine, also called hematuria is the presence of abnormal numbers of red cells in urine and is caused from:

• Acute Tubular Necrosis
• Glomerular Damage
• Kidney Trauma
• Nephrotoxins
• Physical Stress
• Renal Infarcts
• Tumors which erode the urinary tract anywhere along its length
• Upper and Lower Urinary Tract Infections (UTI’s)
• Urinary Tract Stones

Red cells may also contaminate the urine from the vagina in menstruating women or from trauma produced by bladder catheterization. Theoretically, no red cells should be found, but some find their way into the urine even in very healthy individuals. However, if one or more red cells can be found in every high power field, and if contamination can be ruled out, the specimen is probably abnormal.

Urine Red Cells

Picture Reference: http://www.uu.nl/faculty/veterinarymedicine/EN/labs_services/uvdl/informatie/sedimenten/Pages/cellen.aspx

White Blood Cells in the Urine: Pyuria or white blood cells (WBS’s) in the urine can come from the vagina or cervix in the female and the end of the penis and is indicative of infection.  These are a special type of cell that clean up bacteria and viruses called polymorphonucleocytes (PMN’s) meaning their nucleus inside the cell has many different looking sizes and shapes. 

Urine White Blood Cells

Sperm:

Sperm in urine

Some labs do not report spermatozoa. The problem with such a policy is that the labs rarely know all the elements to make a truly wise decision. Most cases are due to a normal human “activity” that should stay personal. But some cases, not necessarily known to the lab, are a result of reprehensible activity. Reporting the sperm cells found in a young girl’s specimen is an easy decision but, cases of abuse are not always so obvious. I personally think that the lab should report all cases of spermatozoa and let the clinician decide what to do with the result.

Crystals in the Urinalysis:  The pH of the urine determines what types of crystals will be formed.

Bilirubin Crystals: 

Urine Bilirubin Crystal

In dogs, bilirubin crystals are often of no significance (healthy dogs can have low, but detectable, bilirubin levels in urine). Bilirubin crystals (or a positive chemical reaction on the urine dipstick) in the feline, equine, or bovine urinalysis should be investigated since an underlying problems with the liver and congestion of bile flow is likely. The crystals themselves appear as gold orange needle-like forms, or as amorphous material.

Calcium Oxalate or Hippurate Crystals (indicating Ethylene Glycol—Antifreeze poisoning)

Calcium Oxalate Crystals

In abundance, calcium oxalate and/or hippurate crystals may suggest ethylene glycol (antifreeze) ingestion. Neurological abnormalities, appearance of drunkenness, hypertension, and a high anion gap acidosis are usually accompanied with the antifreeze toxicity. The crystals are best seen with a polarized (yellow lens). Look for the rainbow appearance.

Large numbers of calcium oxalate crystals occur, as well, with acute renal failure following methoxyflurane (Metophane) anesthesia. Urine is usually supersaturated in calcium oxalate, often in calcium phosphate, and acid urine is often saturated in uric acid.

Other Pictures of Calcium oxyalate crystals: http://www.ndt-educational.org/fogazzislidepart3.asp

Calcium Phosphate Crystals:

Urine Calcium Phosphate Crystal

Reference: http://www.ndt-educational.org/fogazzislidepart3.asp

Cholesterol Crystals: Signifies heavy protein in the urine.

Urine Cholesterol Crystals

Picture reference: http://louisvuittonbags-ahmedhany.blogspot.com/2010_10_23_archive.html

Cystine Crystals: Pathologically significant and usually caused by a genetic defect.

Urine Cystine Crystals

Another picture of cystine as seen under high power microscopy:

Urine Cystine

Picture references: http://louisvuittonbags-ahmedhany.blogspot.com/2010_10_23_archive.html

Cystine crystals areseen as colorless hexagonal plates. They are found in acid urine and dissolve in alkaline urine so would rarely be found there. The reason why these slides are orange is because a yellow polarized lens was put on the microscope to view them. Under this type of light, the crystals will show the tell tale rainbow color (we call that birefringent).

Reference: http://www.ndt-educational.org/fogazzislidepart3.asp

2,8 Di-Hydroxyadenine Crystals: Two slides of the same crystal. The top is with bright-field microscopy and the bottom photo is under polarized light they appear as “Maltese crosses” very similar to lipid particles. Indicates a hereditary, rare, genetic deficiency of the adenine phosphoribosyl transferase enzyme.

Urine 2,8 Di-hydroxyadenine crystal bright field

Urine 2,8 Di-hydroxyadenine dark field

Hippurate Crystals (See Calcium Oxalate)

Triple Phosphate Crystals (Struvite) Common in the dog and cat urinalysis:

Urine Triple Phosphate Crystal

Tyrosine Crystals:

Urine Tyrosine Crystal

Tyrosine crystallizes as brown needles, isolated or forming a dense rosette.

Uric Acid Crystals: 

Urine Uric Acid Crystals

This image provides a good example of uric acid. These crystals can take multiple forms: “A” is one of the rhombic plate (diamond-shaped) and is very common. “B” is the uric acid crystal in the shape of a barrel. They are often yellow to orange-brown in color. Under polarized microscopy they exhibit birefringence and many colors.

The presence of very large numbers of uric acid crystals may accompany gout and conditions of increased purine metabolism as in chemotherapy.

Reference: http://www.medicine.uiowa.edu/cme/clia/modules.asp?testID=20#3_10UrineCrystals

Tyrosine Crystals: Tyrosine crystals appear as fine silky needles arranged in sheaves or bundles in acid urine. They are rarely present and may appear together with leucine crystals in liver disease. Do not confuse tyrosine with crystals caused by x-ray dye. X-ray dyes will cause the urine specific gravity to be greatly increased (1.040), Tyrosine crystals are soluble in alkali or dilute mineral acid.

Urine Tyrosine Crystal

Picture Reference: http://www.medialabinc.net/samplepages/sample-page.aspx?keyword=TYROSINE%20CRYSTAL&courseid=609&pageid=30180

Uric Acid Crystals: (Like in Gout)

Uric Acid Crystals

Reference: http://www.ndt-educational.org/fogazzislidepart3.asp

Lipid Droplets and oval fat bodies (indicated by arrows and red blood cells in urine below that.) Fats in the urine are called lipiduria:

Urine Lipid Droplets

Casts:  A cast is a glob or bunch of cells released from damaged renal tubules consisting of granular, hyaline, albuminoid or other cellular debris associated with kidney disease. Casts are present in the following conditions and should not be considered normal in urine sediment:

• Lupus nephritis
• Malignant hypertension (high blood pressure caused from cancer)
• Diabetic glomerulosclerosis (the kidneys turning to scar tissue)
• Rapidly progressive glomerulonephritis (infection within the kidneys)

Granular cast:

Urine Granular Cast

Red blood cell casts:

Urine red cell cast

Waxy Casts:      

Urine Waxy Cast

Epithelial Casts:

Urine epithelial cast

Hyaline casts, made from protein come from the kidney tubules and can be a normal finding in urinary sediments:

Urine Hyaline Cast

Granular casts and waxy casts are believed to be derived from renal tubular cell casts.

Urine Granular Cast

Some of these casts are composed of bacterial fragments.

White Blood Cell Casts:

Urine White blood cell cast

Reference: http://www.biorama.ch/biblio/b50chem/k30niere/neph933.htm 

Squamous cells: Squamous epithelial cells from the skin surface or from the outer urethra can appear in urine. 

Urine Squamous Cells

Renal tubular cells: Transitional epithelial cells from the renal pelvis, ureter, or bladder have more regular cell borders, larger nuclei, and smaller overall size than squamous epithelium. Renal tubular epithelial cells are smaller and rounder than transitional epithelium, and their nucleus occupies more of the total cell volume. (See pink square cells above and to the left).

Urine Renal tubular casts

Yeast in the urinalysis:

The presence of yeast in the urine sediment may indicate an infection. A frequently seen yeast in urine is Candida. Identification of this organism is relatively easy because of its usual club shape. In the majority of cases, only the isolated cells are seen but, in some cases, budding pseudohyphea may be observed . Most often they are Candida, which may colonize bladder, urethra, or vagina. 

Urinary Yeast

Reference http://www.agora.crosemont.qc.ca/urinesediments/doceng/doc_005.htm#Levures 

Bacteria: Bacteria and yeast can be present if there was contamination at the time of collection during a free-catch if the vagina or external ventral meatus of the penis has not been properly washed.  Here’s a slide stained with a Gram stain showing and E. coli infection. The E. coli show up as red rods. You can also see three white blood cells in the slide:

Urine Bacteria rods

Reference:  www.microbelibrary.org

Parasites:

Here’s a picture of Dictophyme renale in a urine sediment (the giant red roundworm that makes its home in some mammals and man.

Dictophyme renale eggs in urine

Trichomonas: The parasite that is the more frequently seen in urine is Trichomonas. Usually, this cell comes from genital secretions contaminating the specimen.

Urine sample with Trichomonas

Pinworm egg (Enterobius) in urine sediment:

Pinworm egg in a urine sample

Schistosoma eggs in the urine (mostly in third world country and lots of these cases are self diagnosed because the urine is actually red.)

Schistosoma egg in urine

Artifacts: My personal favorite, “Artifacts” which means we don’t know what the heck it is and can’t put a name on it.

Urinary Artifacts

Starch or talc powder: Since the advent of systematic use of latex gloves by  hospital staff, the presence of starch crystals or sometimes talc has become very frequent. The crystals are birefringent with a maltese cross interference pattern when seen under crossed polarized filter. The aspect of these crystals under bright field allows one to easily distinguish them from the birefringent fatty droplets.

Starch or talc in urine